EARLY SEASON AND SEED-BORNE DISEASES
Phytophthora root and stem rot is the most serious soybean disease in Ohio and is present everywhere soybeans are grown. Damage to the crop by Phytophthora sojae is most prevalent in fields with poor drainage, high number of years with soybeans, and reduced tillage systems. Varieties are susceptible at all stages of growth. Saturated soil with a temperature above 60 degrees Fahrenheit provides the ideal conditions for infection. Susceptible varieties should not be grown in poorly drained soils or on soils known to have a history of the disease. Seed of varieties with good partial resistance should be treated with a fungicide that aids in the control of Phytophthora damping-off. Varieties with Rps genes should also be treated to control Phytophthora damping-off because these Rps genes are not effective in every field nor across the whole field. Planting early, well before soil temperatures reach 60 F, often allows varieties with high levels of partial resistance to escape early infection if the soil does not become saturated.
Pythium, Fusarium, and Rhizoctonia root rots are also common in Ohio, and most varieties are susceptible. Damage to plant stands is greatest on poorly drained soils and during seasons of high rainfall. Moreover, these pathogens can also affect corn and wheat, which are commonly rotated with soybean.
Phomopsis seed rot can be severe when rainfall occurs intermittently during grain dry-down and harvest. The longer soybeans are in the field after ripening, the greater the incidence of seed rot. Harvesting soon after the soybeans mature (15%–20% moisture) decreases the amount of seed damage. Using varieties with a range of maturities allows for a timelier harvest of each field. Many varieties are resistant to Phomopsis seed rot; if Phomopsis develops in a variety, look for a different variety for future years. Crop rotation and tillage are excellent management tools for this seed rot pathogen as it survives on previous crop residue.
Phomopsis seed rot can reduce overall germination in certain seed lots, and Phytophthora, Pythium, Fusarium, and Rhizoctonia can kill seeds and seedlings after they are planted. One of the management tools for these seed-and soil-borne plant pathogens is to use fungicide seed treatments. No one fungicide is highly effective for all pathogens. Choosing a mix of several compounds will provide broad spectrum control. Seed treatments are best used on fields with poor drainage, a history of stand establishment problems, and reduced tillage systems.
MID- TO LATE-SEASON SOYBEAN DISEASEs
Soybean cyst nematode(SCN) exists in production fields throughout Ohio. In some fields, the population of SCN is currently quite high (>10,000 eggs per cup of soil). Populations of SCN may take eight to 10 years from introduction to reach damaging levels throughout a field. In a variety test in west central Ohio on a fertile, dark-colored soil, varieties resistant to SCN yielded over 50 bushels per acre, whereas those susceptible to SCN yielded from 24 to 39 bushels per acre. Although these studies were conducted in problem fields, the estimated yield loss from SCN in other Midwestern states is 8%–12%.
In the vast majority of Ohio fields, SCN causes no aboveground symptoms. The only difference that growers will see is that yields may be 5 to 10 bushels less than fields with similar yield potential. In more severe situations, where SCN populations are high, injury is easily confused with other crop production problems, such as nutrient deficiencies, injury from herbicides, soil compaction, or other diseases. The first field symptoms are usually detected in circular to oval patches of stunted, yellowed plants. Symptoms are most evident in late July or August when plants are under drought stress or in fields with low fertility. When populations of nematodes are high, the symptoms may even occur under normal to optimal growing conditions. Affected areas of a field may increase in size each year in the direction of tillage. In these affected areas, SCN females can often be found feeding on the roots.
To actively manage SCN, we recommend testing fields to know their SCN numbers, rotating to non-host crops, rotating SCN-resistant varieties, and considering the use of a nematode-protectant seed treatment. Soybean cyst nematode is best managed with crop rotation, rotating non-host crops such as wheat, corn, alfalfa, or red clover and rotating sources of SCN resistance. Never plant an SCN resistant variety without checking your population levels first. When a non-host crop is planted, SCN populations will decline annually. Resistance to SCN remains the most effective management strategy when rotating to a non-host crop is not an option. The predominant source of resistance in most commercially available soybean cultivars comes from Plant Introduction (PI) 88788, which confers resistance to SCN Type 0 (formerly race 3). Soybean varieties labeled "SCNresistant" most likely have resistance from PI 88788. The use of the same source of resistance exerted selection pressure on SCN populations, resulting in a shift in virulence to adapt and parasitize PI 88788-derived resistant soybean cultivars. In other words, nematodes are becoming resistant to the resistance. Therefore, a soybean cultivar labeled "resistant to SCN" is not enough; we need to know the source of SCN resistance (PI 88788, Peking, etc.) present in the soybean cultivars and what SCN type (HG type 0, 2-, etc.) we are trying to manage, and then rotate SCN sources of resistance. In addition, complementing SCN resistance with seed protectants will increase soybean health and ultimately increase production and profitability.
While soybean fields infested with SCN may not show above-ground symptoms or look sick, the presence of SCN females attached to soybean roots can be detected six to eight weeks after planting. Growers, agronomists, and crop consultants are encouraged to check soybean roots for SCN throughout August and September. A short video showing how to check roots for SCN can be found at youtu.be/2x1HHNw4R1k. If SCN is found on soybean roots, a soil sample in the fall will help reveal SCN numbers and define the most adequate management strategies. To determine what your SCN levels are, soil samples should be collected. Each field should be divided into sections not exceeding 10 acres and each section sampled by taking 15 to 20 subsamples in a zigzag pattern. This level of sampling is necessary to obtain relatively accurate counts of the nematode population and to make meaningful recommendations for control. The soil samples should be moist but not wet, packaged in double plastic bags, and protected from becoming too warm. Mail samples to the Soybean Pathology and Nematology Laboratory at The Ohio State University Department of Plant Pathology, 201 Kottman Hall, 2021 Coffey Road, Columbus, Ohio 43210.
Phytophthora stem rot will continue to infect plants throughout the growing season. This late-season phase of the disease can be found only in fields where heavy rains or saturated soils have occurred, varieties with ineffective Rps genes, and low levels of partial resistance. If the Rps genes are effective against the P. sojae population, then no disease will develop; however, if they are no longer effective, stem rot will develop. We have found from a number of years and locations that varieties with high levels of partial resistance rarely develop stem rot. Remember that not all seed companies use the same scoring system.
Sclerotinia stem rot, also known as white mold, is present throughout most of Ohio and may be severe (50% of plants in a field infected) when wet weather occurs prior to and during flowering. Varieties with resistance to Sclerotinia sclerotiorum have fewer numbers of plants infected, but all are susceptible to some degree. Stem symptoms first appear as water-soaked lesions followed by cottony growth and, eventually, black irregular-shaped sclerotia that resemble mouse droppings. Wide rows (30 inches) aid in control by permitting air to move through the canopy to dry plant leaves and the soil surface but also reduce yield due to less sunlight fixation. Reduction in plant populations (160,000—180,000 plants per acre) and planting in 15-inch rows can reduce overall incidence of white mold without negatively impacting yields.
Sudden death syndrome(SDS) is considered a lateseason disease because foliar symptoms occur during the reproductive stage of soybean development, typically around R5 to R6 growth stages. Infection, however, takes place soon after germination, as the most prevalent soilborne fungus, Fusarium virguliforme, colonizes the roots, releasing toxins and interfering with water uptake and nutrient flow. Cool and wet soil conditions exacerbate the severity of SDS. SDS appears to be associated with soybean cyst nematode and areas of the field with very poor drainage. Symptoms are very similar to brown stem rot in that brown spots develop in the leaves between the veins, surrounded by a bright yellow chlorosis. In SDS, the roots are very degraded along with the crown. One of the key diagnostic tools is the color of the pith, which remains white and healthy with SDS and is brown and decayed with brown stem rot. A short video showing how to diagnose SDS can be found at youtu.be/VKKovPUqBmo. This fungus survives in soil for long periods of time. Implementing effective management strategies is crucial to minimize the impact of SDS on soybean. These strategies include the use of resistant cultivars, proper field drainage, cultural practices (such as planting later when soil temperatures are warmer), and seed treatments.
Brown stem rot can severely reduce yield. This fungus enters the plants through the roots and slowly colonizes the stem and the xylem, where it interferes with water transport. The disease symptoms develop after flowering and are identified by an internal browning of the stem. The foliar symptoms, which are rarely observed in Ohio, are very similar to those caused by SDS. The leaves of infected plants may suddenly wilt and dry 20 to 30 days before maturity and drop from the plant. Crop rotation is an excellent control for this disease.
Frogeye leaf spot, caused by Cercospora sojina, is a prevalent foliar disease in soybean. It manifests as circular to oval-shaped lesions with tan to brown centers and reddish-brown borders. If soybeans are affected by this disease during the R3 to R5 growth stage, it can significantly reduce yield. Managing this disease requires integrated approaches, such as crop rotation, balanced nutrition, and timely fungicide applications, for effective control.