The selection of forages for hay, silage, pasture, and conservation is an important decision requiring knowledge of agronomic characteristics, forage species adaptation to site and soil characteristics, and potential feeding value of forage plants. The intended use of forages, dry matter and nutritional requirements of livestock to be fed, seasonal feed needs, harvest and storage capabilities, and seasonal labor availability influence which species to grow.
Agronomic Adaption and Intended Use
Tables 7.1 and 7.2 outline the agronomic adaptation and characteristics of the primary forages grown in Ohio. The choice of species is limited to those adapted to the soils on the farm, so evaluate the soil adaptation factors in Table 7.1 first when selecting species. Useful soil information describing the limitations of a particular soil for forage production can be found at NRCS offices or online through the USDA-NRCS Web Soil Survey at nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/main/soils/survey. Keep in mind that soil pH can be increased with lime, soil fertility can be improved with fertilizers and manure, and soil drainage can be modified with tiling. Soil drainage is usually the most difficult soil characteristic to modify. The following is a brief discussion of individual species that can help determine which species are best suited to a particular enterprise. Table 7.3 gives commonly recommended species to consider for general soil fertility classes and utilization methods.
Pure Stands Versus Mixtures
The decision to establish a pure stand or a mixture of species should be made before deciding which species to plant. Advantages of pure grass or pure legume stands include simpler management and more herbicide options. Pure legume stands decline in forage quality more slowly with advancing maturity than do grasses, providing a wider window of opportunity for harvesting good-quality forage. Pure grass stands are usually more resilient, able to withstand more abuse, and able to persist longer than pure legume stands.
Legume-grass mixtures are common in Ohio and can exploit the relative strengths of grasses and legumes. Mixtures are generally more satisfactory for pastures than pure stands. Grass-legume mixtures are often more stable in yield and have more uniform production across seasons than pure stands. Including legumes in a mixture reduces the need for nitrogen fertilizer, improves forage nutritive value and animal performance, and reduces the potential for nitrate poisoning and grass tetany compared with pure grass stands. Including grasses in a mixture usually lengthens the life of a stand because they persist longer and are more tolerant of mismanagement and variable soils than legumes. Grasses reduce the incidence of bloat, improve hay drying, are usually more tolerant of lower fertility, reduce losses to insect pests and diseases, and compete with weeds more than legumes. The fibrous root system of grasses helps control erosion on steep slopes and reduces legume heaving.
Mixtures for Hay and Silage
Keep mixtures relatively simple for hay or silage use, two to four species are usually sufficient. Hay and silage cutting schedules are easier to manage with simple mixtures. Consider the following criteria:
• Adaptation. All species in the mixture should be adapted to the prevailing soil conditions (drainage, soil moisture holding capacity, soil pH, fertility, etc.).
• Rate of Establishment. Combine species with similar seedling aggressiveness. Persistent plant species are often the least competitive in the seedling stage. Excessive seedling competition in a shotgun mixture can prevent persistence and desirable species from becoming established. An exception to this rule is the use of companion crops, or fast-establishing shortlived perennial or annual species used to achieve quick ground cover. Small grains and annual or perennial ryegrass are often used for this purpose. Keep seeding rates of these temporary companions low to avoid excessive competition with the slower establishing perennial species.
• Time of Maturity. Species and varieties in a mixture should mature at about the same time and match your intended harvest schedule. There are considerable variation in maturity among grass species and varieties. Such information is often collected in variety testing trials and is also available from seed suppliers.
• Management Compatibility. Select species that are well adapted to the intended management. For example, orchardgrass is compatible with alfalfa on a four-cut schedule because it regrows quickly, while timothy and bromegrass are compatible with alfalfa on a more lenient three-cut schedule.
• Summer Production. Alfalfa produces very well during the summer months while birdsfoot trefoil and red clover generally produce less summer yield. Of the grasses, orchardgrass, tall fescue and reed canarygrass produce the best summer growth. Smooth bromegrass produces moderate to light summer aftermath, and timothy, meadow fescue and perennial ryegrass are usually lower yielding in the summer months. Moisture and temperature conditions affect aftermath production of cool season grasses more than alfalfa.
• Variety Performance. Use variety testing data where is its available to select species and varieties that have stable yield performance over multiple locations and years. Stable yield performance across many environments demonstrates good adaptation to a wide range of conditions. Performance over years demonstrates yield persistence with advancing stand age and is especially important for long rotations.
• Disease and Pest Resistance. Select species and varieties with resistance to important insects and diseases for your soils. For example, Phytophthora root rot and Fusarium wilt resistance in alfalfa are very important on soils with suboptimal drainage, while potato leafhopper resistant alfalfa is useful across all of Ohio. Resistance to foliar diseases can be important in grasses.
• Forage Quality. Varieties with improved forage quality are available in some species. If high forage quality is very important, then select varieties based on this trait. Alfafa varieties with the reduced lignin trait are available, which can lengthen the harvesting window for achieving good-quality forage, providing the opportunity for harvesting at longer intervals that can lead to one less harvest per season at equal nutritive value and forage yields compared with more frequent cutting leading to more harvests per season.
Mixtures for pastures
While simple mixtures are desirable for hay and silage management, studies in Ohio and the northeastern United States demonstrated that complex mixtures of six or more species provide greater stability of forage production under grazing conditions and in the more variable soil conditions that are characteristics of pastures. Soil and environmental variability in pastures makes it difficult to predict which species will perform best. Species dominance and spatial distribution in a pasture will be affected by variability in fertility, soil drainage, slope aspect (north versus south facing), animal traffic and grazing patterns, among other factors that influence the microenvironment. In addition, species vary in productivity during different seasons, i.e., between spring and summer grazing periods. Therefore, for pastures it is best to use mixtures with a range of grasses and legumes that fit the general soil conditions and management characteristics and that are not drastically different in palatability. For hay planted on better soils, simple mixtures of two to three species or pure stands of one species selected carefully for the prevailing soil conditions are generally adequate compared with more complex mixtures.
seeding rates
Table 7.4 gives recommended seeding rates for individual species in pure stands and for mixtures. Seeding rate recommendations are related to seed size, germination, seedling and established plant vigor, spreading characteristics, and mature plant size. For example, more seeds per square foot are recommended for species with low seedling vigor and smaller mature plant size (e.g., Kentucky bluegrass) to improve establishment success and competitiveness of that species in a mixture or against weed encroachment. Increasing seeding rates above the recommended levels does not compensate for poor seedbed preparation or improper seeding methods.
There is no reliable way to predict that a specific proportion sown will result in a similar proportion of established plants in a mixed species seeding. The seeding rates shown for mixtures are simply varying percentages of the pure stand seeding rate recommendation. Use your best judgment to adjust the seeding rate for each species based on the relative proportion desired of that species in the mixture (see sidebar). Complex mixtures will often result in a higher overall seeding rate (in seeds per square foot) than simpler mixtures. This is simply a function of having more component species, each one seeded above a minimum level to provide an opportunity for it to establish and compete in the microenvironments where it is best adapted.
Examples of Seeding Mixtures
Simple Hay Mixture: For an orchardgrass base with a small percentage of red clover, sow orchardgrass at the threequarter rate (7 pounds per acre) and red clover at the onequarter rate (3 pounds per acre), as shown in Table 7.4.
Complex Pasture Mixture: If orchardgrass is desired to be slightly more dominant than several other species in a complex mixture, sow orchardgrass at the one-third rate and the other species at the one-eighth rate: orchardgrass (3 pounds per acre), festulolium (3 pounds per acre), smooth bromegrass (4 pounds per acre), red clover (2 pounds per acre), ladino clover (1 pound per acre), and chicory (1.5 pounds per acre).
characteristics of Perennial Cool-Season Forages
Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) Alfalfa is grown on about one-third of the total hay and haylage acres in Ohio. Where adapted, it is unmatched by any other forage as high-quality feed for livestock and as a cash crop. Alfalfa requires deep, well-drained soils with near-neutral pH (6.5–7.0) and high fertility. It should not be grown on soils with moderate to poor drainage. Alfalfa is best adapted to hay or silage harvest management. While it can be used in rotationally grazed pastures, it normally lacks persistence in permanent pastures compared with other legumes. Like most legumes, it can cause bloat. Alfalfa has good seedling vigor, excellent drought tolerance, and produces very well through the summer. Important insect pests on alfalfa include the alfalfa weevil and potato.
Select newer high-yielding alfalfa varieties with adequate winter hardiness and resistance to important diseases to capitalize on alfalfa’s potential. Most new varieties of alfalfa include selection for multiple disease resistance. Varieties are also available with higher forage nutritive value including varieties with the reduced lignin trait that have higher fiber digestibility. Other traits available in specific alfalfa varieties include, high levels of resistance to potato leafhopper, traffic and grazing tolerance, and some tolerance to lodging. Roundup Ready varieties are now available as a tool for weed management. Studies in Ohio have demonstrated that new varieties with multiple pest resistance provide higher yields and greater stand persistence with less weed invasion than older varieties. Always evaluate performance data across multiple locations when selecting varieties
Alsike Clover (Trifolium hybridum L.) Alsike clover is a short-lived perennial legume that is tolerant of wet, acidic soils. Alsike tolerates soils with a pH as low as 5.0, which is too acidic for red clover and alfalfa. Alsike also grows better than red clover on alkaline (high pH) soils. Alsike tolerates flooding better than other legumes, making it well suited for low-lying fields with poor drainage. It can withstand spring flooding for several weeks. A cool and moist environment is ideal for alsike clover growth; it has poor heat and drought tolerance, thus usually produces only one crop of hay per year. It is susceptible to the same diseases that attack red and white clovers. Its growth habit is intermediate between red and white clover. Alsike clover must be allowed to reseed to maintain its presence in pastures, otherwise it will last only about two years. Alsike clover has good palatability, but can cause bloat and photosensitization in grazing animals.
Birdsfoot Trefoil (Lotus corniculatus L.) Birdsfoot trefoil is a deep-rooted perennial legume that is best adapted to northern Ohio. Birdsfoot trefoil is tolerant of low-pH soils (as low as pH 5.0), moderate to somewhat poor soil drainage, marginal fertility, and soils with fragipans. Birdsfoot trefoil can withstand several weeks of flooding and tolerates periods of moderate drought and heat. It has poor seedling vigor and is slow to establish. Early spring seedings are generally more successful than late summer seedings. It is best seeded with a grass companion. Birdsfoot trefoil produces excellent quality forage with fair palatability, it stockpiles well, and unlike most forage legumes, it is non-bloating. Birdsfoot trefoil should be managed to allow for reseeding to maintain its presence in forage stands. It is intolerant of close cutting or grazing, has slow recovery after hay harvest, and is susceptible to root and crown rot diseases.
Empire-type varieties have prostrate growth and fine stems, making them better suited to grazing. Europeantype varieties are more erect, establish faster, and regrow faster after harvest. Thus, they are better suited to hay production and rotational grazing. Most of the newer varieties are intermediate with semi-erect to erect growth habit.
Red Clover (Trifolium pratense L.) Red clover is a short-lived perennial legume grown for hay, silage, pasture, and for green manure. Red clover is better adapted than alfalfa to soils that are somewhat poorly drained and slightly acidic; however, greatest production occurs on well-drained soils with high waterholding capacity and pH levels above 6.0. Red clover is not as productive as alfalfa in the summer, but it has good seedling vigor and is one of the easiest legumes to establish using no-till interseeding or frost-seeding techniques. Under Ohio weather conditions, red clover is often difficult to dry for hay storage. Harvesting for silage or including a grass in the stand helps alleviate this problem. When grazed, red clover can cause bloat in cattle if sufficient grass is not present.
Medium red clover varieties can be harvested three to four times per year. Mammoth red clover is late to flower and is considered a single cut clover because most of its growth occurs in the spring. Most of the improved varieties are medium types and have good levels of disease resistance to northern and southern anthracnose and powdery mildew. Several new medium red clover varieties have demonstrated acceptable stand persistence for three or even four years in Ohio State and other state university trials. Varieties with greater grazing tolerance are also available, as demonstrated in University of Kentucky grazing tolerance trials (forages.ca.uky.edu/variety_trials).
White Clover (Trifolium repens L.) White clover is a low-growing, short-lived perennial legume that is well suited for pastures. It can cause bloat in cattle if sufficient grass is not present for grazing. White clover improves forage quality of grass pastures and reduces the need for nitrogen fertilizer. White clover can be frostseeded or no-till seeded into existing grass pastures. It spreads by stolons. White clover is most productive when moisture is plentiful. It has a shallow root system, so it does not tolerate prolonged dry spells. Although well-drained soils improve production, white clover tolerates periods of poor drainage. It can be managed for reseeding to improve persistence in pastures.
Large white clover types, also known as Ladino clovers, are more productive and aggressive in mixtures with grasses than are the medium-leaf or the small-leaf type frequently referred to as white Dutch clover. The smalland medium-leaf clovers persist better under heavy, continuous stocking or rotational stocking on pastures because they are often prolific reseeders. In contrast, the large-leaf types are better suited under hay or silage management because they can be too aggressive in grazed pastures, resulting in higher risk for animals to bloat. Purchase seed of stated quality to be certain of obtaining pure seed of the white clover variety desired.
Festulolium (x Festulolium Asch. & Graebn.) Festulolium grass varieties are hybrids derived from crosses among up to four possible parent species: tall fescue, meadow fescue, Italian ryegrass, and perennial ryegrass. They are bunchgrasses suitable for hay, silage, or pasture. The parent species used in the cross and the relative proportion of genes from each parent determines the characteristics of any given Festulolium variety, thus it is difficult to generalize about this species. For example, a meadow fescue parent contributes midsummer growth, winter hardiness, forage quality, and drought tolerance, whereas an Italian ryegrass parent contributes rapid establishment and quick regrowth. Festulolium is generally best adapted to the northern half of Ohio; however, when tall fescue is used to contribute a significant proportion of the genetic makeup of the festulolium variety, then it would likely be adapted to southern Ohio as well. Festulolium generally grows especially well in the spring and produces palatable forage with high nutritive value. Festulolium yields well under good fertility when moisture is adequate. Like perennial ryegrass, it is a vigorous establisher. Because it is generally less winter-hardy than other grasses, Festulolium is best seeded in combination with other grasses and legumes. It can be grown on occasionally wet soils. Compared with orchardgrass, it is lower yielding, less competitive with legumes, and later to mature. Like orchardgrass, Festulolium can withstand frequent cutting or grazing. It is difficult to cut with a sickle bar mower and is slower to dry than other grasses, so it is better suited to grazing, greenchopping, and silage harvesting than for dry hay.
Festulolium varieties can differ markedly in winterhardiness and recovery from winter injury based on the parent germplasm used to produce the variety. For permanent pastures, select varieties that are proven to persist well under Ohio conditions.
Kentucky Bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.) Kentucky bluegrass is a long-lived perennial grass especially well-suited to pastures because of its low growth habit. It forms a dense, tough sod under favorable conditions, providing good footing for grazing animals. It reproduces by seed and rhizomes. It tolerates close or frequent grazing and is one of the most forgiving grasses, able to tolerate and persist under a wide range of soil conditions and mismanagement. Kentucky bluegrass grows best under cool and moist conditions, usually going semi-dormant during the summer. Improved varieties are available.
Meadow Fescue (Schedonorus pratensis (Huds.) P. Beauv.) Meadow fescue is a cool-season semi-bunch type of grass native to northern Europe and mountainous regions in southern Europe that is regaining acceptance in the United States because of its many positive characteristics. It grows well under cool, moist conditions and reportedly tolerates wet and sometimes flooded conditions. It was introduced into the United States in the early 1800s but was essentially forgotten by the 1950s. Recently, it has gained renewed interest among forage producers because it produces palatable forage of high nutritive value, and is suitable for frequent, managed grazing systems, but, it is lower yielding (20%–30% less) than orchardgrass, and tall fescue and is less suited to hay production. It is very winter hardy and yields more than perennial ryegrass while being more palatable with higher fiber digestibility at equal stages of maturity than either tall fescue or orchardgrass, resulting in higher animal performance. Meadow fescue is consistently about five units higher in neutral detergent fiber digestibility (NDFD) than tall fescue or orchardgrass across the entire growing season. Meadow fescue has a fungal endophyte, which does not produce alkaloids that are harmful to animals. It is not currently known if the endophyte provides any benefit to the plant. Meadow fescue does exhibit good drought tolerance on shallow soils and populations of this grass on farms have been noted as growing in deep, consistent shade of remnant oak savannas in the North Central region. Mixtures of meadow fescue with alfalfa have been shown to provide higher energy to protein ratios compared with mixtures of alfalfa with orchardgrass, timothy, tall fescue, meadow brome, or Kentucky bluegrass.
New varieties are available from several grass seed sources, many developed in Europe. Varieties are being developed in the United States, including the variety Hidden Valley, a publicly released variety developed from selections in Wisconsin.
Orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata L.) Orchardgrass is a versatile perennial bunch-type grass (no rhizomes) that establishes rapidly and is suitable for hay, silage, or pasture. Orchardgrass along with tall fescue are usually the most productive cool-season grasses grown in Ohio, especially under good fertility management. Orchardgrass has rapid regrowth, produces well under frequent cutting or grazing, and has better summer growth than most of the other coolseason grasses. It grows best in deep, well-drained, loamy soils. Its flooding tolerance is fair in the summer but poor in the winter. Orchardgrass is especially well suited for mixtures with tall legumes, such as alfalfa and red clover. The rapid decline in palatability and quality with maturity is a limitation with this grass, especially in the spring growth. Timely harvest management is essential for obtaining good quality forage.
Improved varieties of orchardgrass are available with high yield potential and resistance to leaf diseases, and some have been developed for greater grazing tolerance. Maturity is an important consideration in variety selection, and a wide range in maturity is available among new varieties. When seeding orchardgrass-legume mixtures, select varieties that match the maturity of the legume. The latermaturing varieties are best suited for mixtures with alfalfa and red clover. In pastures, early-maturing varieties will often produce higher yield than late-maturing varieties, but grazing management must be aggressive in the spring to manage their rapid and early maturation.
Reed Canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea L.) Reed canarygrass is a tall, leafy, coarse, high-yielding perennial grass tolerant of a wide range of soil and climatic conditions (Tables 7.1 and 7.2). It can be used for hay, silage, and pasture. It has a reputation for poor palatability and low forage quality. This reputation was warranted in the past because older varieties produced forage containing alkaloid compounds, which are bitter and complex and contain nitrogen. However, varieties are available now with low alkaloid content that make this forage an acceptable animal feed, even for lactating dairy cows, when cut or grazed in the vegetative stages.
Reed canarygrass grows well in very poorly drained soils, but is also productive on well-drained upland soils. It is winter-hardy, drought tolerant (deep-rooted), resistant to leaf diseases, persistent, responsive to high fertility, and toleratant of spring flooding, low pH, and frequent cutting or grazing. Reed canarygrass forms a dense sod. Limitations of this grass include slow establishment, expensive seed, and rapid decline in forage quality after heading (i.e., at the onset of reproductive growth).
Only low-alkaloid varieties (e.g., Palaton, Venture, Rival, and Marathon) are recommended if the crop is to be used as an animal feed. These varieties are palatable and equal in quality to other cool-season grasses when harvested at similar stages of maturity. Common ("variety not stated") reed canarygrass seed should be considered to contain high levels of alkaloids and undesirable for animal feed.
Ryegrass (Lolium species) Perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) is a bunch grass suitable for hay, silage, or pasture that is best adapted to the northern half of Ohio. Perennial ryegrass produces palatable forage with high nutritive value. It has a long growing season and yields well under good fertility when moisture is plentiful. It is a vigorous establisher and is often used in mixtures to establish quick ground cover. Because it is less winter-hardy than other grasses, perennial ryegrass is best seeded in combination with other grasses and legumes. It can be grown on occasionally wet soils. Compared with orchardgrass, it is lower yielding, less competitive with legumes, and later to mature. Like orchardgrass, perennial ryegrass can withstand frequent cutting or grazing. It is difficult to cut with a sickle bar mower and is slower to dry than other grasses, so it is better suited to grazing, greenchopping, and silage harvesting than for dry hay.
Perennial ryegrass varieties can differ markedly in winterhardiness and recovery from winter injury. Maturity also differs widely among ryegrass varieties. Be sure to purchase endophyte-free seed of forage-type varieties; seed of many turf-type varieties is infected with a fungal endophyte (fungus inside the seed and plant), which can be harmful to livestock and cause a neurological condition known as ryegrass staggers. Forage-type varieties are either diploid (the basic chromosome number is doubled) or tetraploid (basic chromosome number is quadrupled). Tetraploid varieties have fewer, but larger tillers and wider leaves, resulting in more open sods than diploids. Tetraploids are usually slightly higher in forage digestibility.
Hybrid ryegrass (Lolium x hybridum Hausskn.) is achieved by crossing perennial and annual ryegrass. It generally has characteristics intermediate between those of perennial and annual ryegrass.
Italian ryegrass (Lolium perenne L. spp. multiflorum (Lam.) Husnot) is generally annual or biennial in longevity and can provide short-term high yields of high-quality forage. More details on this species are provided under the Annual Forage Crops section later in this chapter.
Smooth Bromegrass (Bromus inermis Leyss.) Smooth bromegrass is a leafy, sod-forming perennial grass best suited for hay, silage, and early spring pasture. It spreads by underground rhizomes and through seed dispersal. Smooth bromegrass is best adapted to well-drained silt-loam or clay-loam soils. It is a good companion with cool-season legumes. Smooth bromegrass matures somewhat later than orchardgrass in the spring and makes less summer growth than orchardgrass. It is very winter-hardy and, because of its deep root system, will survive periods of drought. Smooth bromegrass produces excellent-quality forage, especially if harvested in the early heading stage. It is adversely affected by cutting or grazing when the stems are elongating rapidly (jointing stage), and is less tolerant of frequent cutting. It should be harvested for hay in the early heading stage for best recovery growth. Fluffy seed makes this grass difficult to drill unless mixed with a carrier (e.g., oats, rice hulls, vermiculite, or small amount of phosphate fertilizer). It is susceptible to leaf diseases.
Improved high-yielding and persistent varieties are available. Some varieties are more resistant to brown leaf spot, which may occur on smooth bromegrass. These improved varieties start growing earlier in the spring and stay green longer than common bromegrass, which has uncertain genetic makeup ("variety not stated" seed).
Several other brome species are now available from forage seed suppliers including Alaska brome, meadow brome, prairie brome, and mountain brome. Always ask for information on species characteristics and evaluate performance data in your region and stands of these species near your farm before purchasing any newer grass species or variety. Plant small areas when your experience with a particular species is limited.
Tall Fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus (Schreb.) Dumort., nom. cons.) Tall fescue is a deep-rooted, long-lived, sod-forming grass that spreads by short rhizomes. It is suitable for hay, silage, or pasture for beef cattle, and sheep. Tall fescue is the best cool-season grass for stockpiled pasture or field-stored hay for winter feeding. It is widely adapted and persists on acidic, wet soils of shale origin. Tall fescue is drought resistant and survives under low fertility conditions and abusive management. It is ideal for waterways, ditch and pond banks, farm lots, and lanes and is the best grass for areas of heavy livestock and machinery traffic.
Most of the tall fescue in older permanent pastures in Ohio contains a fungus (endophyte) growing inside the plant. The fungal endophyte produces alkaloid compounds that reduce palatability in the summer and result in poor animal performance. Several health problems may develop in animals grazing endophyteinfected tall fescue, especially breeding animals. Deeprooted legumes should be included with tall fescue if it is to be used in the summer. Legumes improve animal performance, increase forage production during the summer, and dilute the toxic effect of the endophyte when it is present. For more information on this problem and solutions, refer to fact sheets available through county Extension offices or at ohioline.osu.edu.
Newer endophyte-free varieties or varieties with very low endophyte levels (less than 5%) are recommended if stands are to be used for animal feed. In addition, varieties are also available with novel endophytes that are not toxic to livestock. Kentucky-31 is the most widely grown variety, but most seed sources of this variety are highly infected with the toxic endophyte fungus, and should not be planted for animal feed. When buying seed, make sure the tag states that the seed is endophyte-free or has a very low percentage of infected seed or contains novel endophyte only. Because endophyte-free varieties are less stress tolerant than endophyte-infected varieties, they should be managed more carefully—as you would manage orchardgrass, for example.
Timothy (Phleum pratense L.) Timothy is a hardy perennial bunchgrass that grows best in cool climates. It generally grows better in northern Ohio than southern Ohio, and its shallow root system makes it unsuitable for droughty soils. It produces most of its annual yield in the first crop. Summer regrowth is often limited because of timothy’s intolerance to hot and dry conditions. Timothy is used primarily for hay and is especially popular for horses. It requires fairly well-drained soils. Timothy is less competitive with legumes than most other cool-season grasses but is a popular companion with alfalfa for use as horse hay. It is adversely affected by cutting or grazing when the stems are elongating rapidly (jointing stage), and is less tolerant of frequent cutting. It should be harvested for hay in the early heading stage for best recovery growth.
forage species identification
There are several excellent printed and online resources for identifying forage species. Below is a partial list of what is available (links to many of these are available at forages.osu.edu):
Printed Publications:
Identifying Pasture Grasses, University of Wisconsin bulletin A3637
Identifying Pasture Legumes, University of Wisconsin bulletin A3787
Forage Identification and Use Guide, University of Kentucky Cooperative Extension Service bulletin AGR-175
Forage Legumes, 2nd Ed., University of Minnesota Station bulletin 608–2003
Forage Field Guide, Purdue University Extension guide ID–317
Online Resources:
Purdue Forage Identification, ag.purdue.edu/department/agry/agry-extension/forages/forage-id/index.html
Forage Information System Forage Identification, forages.oregonstate.edu/nfgc/eo/onlineforagecurriculum/ instructormaterials/availabletopics/plantid/identifyforages
University of Wyoming Forage Identification, uwyo.edu/plantsciences/uwplant/forages